The last point is particularly counterintuitive but is well supported—subjects can attend to invisible objects [21]. Moreover, it is likely that many of the signatures proposed as possible NCC may actually be correlates of neural activity that is needed leading up to a conscious percept [43,44], or for giving a report following a conscious percept [36,37,44], rather than for having an experience. Similarly, my experience flows at a particular speed—each experience encompassing a hundred milliseconds or so—but I am not having experience that encompasses just a few milliseconds or instead minutes or hours.
The complex in its present state specifies a quale—a conceptual structure that is maximally irreducible intrinsically.
However, there is still no consensus on whether any of these signs can be treated as reliable ‘signatures’ of consciousness. From these it derives five postulates about the properties required of physical mechanisms to support consciousness.
Humans can perform complex behaviours—recognizing whether a scene is congruous or incongruous, controlling the size, orientation and strength of how one's finger should grip an object, doing simple arithmetic, detecting the meaning of words or rapid keyboard typing—in a seemingly non-conscious manner [61–66]. Different experiences—every different scene in a movie or in a dream—correspond to different shapes, with some shapes being measurably closer (red and blue) and some more distant within the space (a black screen and a city scene). An analogy is mass, which can be defined by how it curves space–time around it—except that in the case of experience the entities having the property are not elementary particles but complexes of elements, and experience comes not in two but in a trillion varieties. In fact, there may even be multiple NCCs in a single brain, as shown by split-brain patients, in which case there should be multiple local maxima of integrated information. As a consequence, the subject would not be conscious of colours (cerebral achromatopsia) and would not even understand what he has lost (colour anosognosia), just like a patient described by von Arx et al. Unlike panpsychism, however, IIT clearly implies that not everything is conscious.
Our position is that, as is often the case in science,16 a theory is first tested and validated in situations that are close to ideal, and then extrapolated to more remote cases. All that is required is that such elements have two or more internal states, inputs that can influence these states in a certain way and outputs that in turn depend on these states. Theme issue ‘Cerebral cartography: a vision of its future’ compiled and edited by Semir Zeki.
Note that the notion of information in IIT differs substantially from that in communication theory or in common language, but it is faithful to its etymology: information refers to how a system of mechanisms in a state, through its cause–effect power, specifies a form (‘informs’ a conceptual structure) in the space of possibilities. In optimally controlled experiments, the stimulus and the behavioural report (such as a button press) are kept constant while the subject sometimes sees the percept and sometimes does not [3,33,34].
In general, a brain having a high capacity for information integration will better match an environment with a complex causal structure varying across multiple time scales, than a network made of many modules that are informationally encapsulated.
Now let the two speak together.
It predicts that consciousness is graded, is common among biological organisms and can occur in some very simple systems.
Can information theory explain consciousness? That is, for the same inputs, the two networks will yield the same output (in general, the equivalent feed-forward network will have many more nodes and connection than the feedback network).
The subject does not see a juxtaposition of both stimuli but experiences either the red grating or the green one, switching back and forth every few seconds.
Being intrinsically irreducible is another precondition for existence having to do with causation: there is no point in assuming that the whole exists in and of itself, if it has no cause–effect power above and beyond its parts.
A second class of zero-Φ systems are purely feed-forward computational networks in which one layer feeds the next one without any recurrent connections. More generally, the larger Φmax, the more a system can lay claim to existing in a fuller sense than systems with lower Φmax. The top row shows a schematic diagram of a binocular rivalry experiment. In such cases, reportability can be used as retrospective evidence of consciousness, by waking up the sleeper to obtain a ‘dream report’.
Finally, IIT makes precise predictions about the physical elements that constitute the NCC and the time intervals and levels of activity at which they operate [77,79]: they should have a spatial scale that achieves the highest value of Φ, as opposed to finer or coarser grains (say, either individual neurons or local groups of neurons rather than neuronal compartments or brain areas); they should operate most effectively (highest value of Φ) at the time scale of consciousness, as opposed to finer or coarser scales (say, hundred milliseconds rather than a millisecond or ten seconds); and the activity states that make the most difference to the NCC should be the ones that support phenomenological distinctions (say, bursting, high mean firing, low mean firing).
Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
's face’, as well as certain appropriate future states. While their content differs from the content associated with feeling pain or seeing red, subjectivity is common to all. If C is OFF, its cause repertoire specifies that, at the previous time step, A and B must have been either in the state OFF,OFF or in the state ON,ON, rather than in the other two possible states (OFF,ON; ON,OFF); and its effect repertoire specifies that the next time step B will have to be OFF, rather than ON. It is far more likely that all mammals have at least some conscious experiences, can hear the sounds and see the sights of life. Some terms used in integrated information theory (IIT). Indeed, in the brains of both vertebrates and invertebrates, there may well exist, at least under some conditions, a major complex and one or more minor complexes. Depending on the exact connectivity, these are likely to have quite different values of Φmax.
On the upper left are three gates with binary states (either ON or OFF: ABC = 100; see also figure 3) that are wired together as shown.
According to it, consciousness corresponds to a system’s capacity to integrate information. This is a comprehensive theory of what consciousness is, what determines its quantity and quality, and how it emerges from causal structures such as neural networks. The perturbational complexity index (PCI), a scalar measure of the compressibility of the EEG response to TMS inspired by IIT, decreases distinctly in all the different conditions of loss of consciousness and, critical for a clinically useful device, is high instead in each conscious healthy subject or neurological patient tested so far [96].
In the laboratory, the ability to report one's experiences has become the gold standard for judging the presence of consciousness. The subject does not see a juxtaposition of both stimuli but experiences either the red grating or the green one, switching back and forth every few seconds. On the upper left are three gates with binary states (either ON or OFF: ABC = 100; see also figure 3) that are wired together as shown. In other words, there is nothing-it-is-like-to-be two people, let alone the 300 plus million citizens making up the USA.13 Again, this point can be exemplified schematically by the system of figure 5a, right panel. For example, a mechanism cannot have effects at a fine temporal grain, and additional effects at a coarser grain, otherwise causal exclusion would be violated. At any given time, then, consciousness is supported by a set of neuronal elements forming a complex of high Φmax that specifies a conceptual structure that is maximally irreducible intrinsically.
But panpsychism's beauty has been singularly barren. It can be determined by perturbing the system in all possible ways to assess how a mechanism in its present state makes a difference to the probability of the past and future states of the system. Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited. Integrated information theory (IIT) attempts to explain what consciousness is and why it might be associated with certain physical systems. Consider that any neural network with feedback circuits can be mapped onto a purely feed-forward network in such a manner that the latter approximates its input–output relationships (for computations bounded by a maximal time step [120]).
Why is consciousness lost in some stages of sleep? Note that IIT is compatible with quantum mechanics.
1 Note that we consider reflective–consciousness, highly developed in adult humans, to be a subclass of conscious experiences.
The constellation of all concepts specifies the overall form or shape of the quale (figure 4).
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